Joan of Arc

In a small town near Vaucouleurs, Joan was born in Domrémy, France, the last town in the east still loyal to Charles VII.  In 1425, Joan began to have visions.  Joan once said, "When I was thirteen, I had a voice from God to help me govern myself.” The voice was of St. Michael, who, with St. Catherine and St. Margaret, told her that she had to help the King of France due to the tragic state of France.  Joan went to Robert de Baudricourt, the captain of Vaucouleurs, asking for a horse, armor, and an escort to Charles VII; however, her request was denied both times.  But, Joan was persistent, and when she went to de Baudricourt a third time, he granted her request. In February 1429, she set out and arrived eleven days later at Chinon.

In April 1429, Joan was sent to Orleans by Charles VII as a captain—not as leader of all his forces. With the help of Duke d'Alençon and Jean, the Bastard of Orléans (later Count of Dunois), Joan and her men were victorious.  This was the first militaristic triumph of Charles’s entire reign.

From 1429 to 1430, Charles and his advisers were indecisive on the next course of action.  Joan wanted to attack the English positions, specifically Paris.  In September 1429, an attack upon Paris failed.  After this, Charles VII signed a treaty with Burgundy that committed him to virtual inaction.

Right after the treaty was signed, Joan was kept inactive by the royal court, moving to the town of Compiègne in May 1430.  In a small battle, outside the town's walls against the Burgundians, Joan was captured.  The Burgundians turned Joan over to the English, who prepared to try her for heresy. Charles VII did not and could not do anything.

Joan's trial had three parts.  It was an ecclesiastical trial for heresy; her judges were Pierre Cauchon (1371–1442), the bishop of Beauvais, and Jean Lemaitre, vicar of the inquisitor of France. They were aided by a large number of theologians and lawyers who sat as a kind of consulting jury.

For almost three months, the court investigated Joan's case and questioned witnesses. The trial ended with Joan's abjuration, and she was charged with fraud and witchcraft.

Apparently, Joan differed about the nature of her abjuration, and two days after she signed it, she withdrew her previous belief.

On May 28, the third phase of her trial began. She was tried as a relapsed heretic, conviction of which meant "release" to the "secular arm," that is, she would be turned over to the English to be burned.  On May 30 1431, Joan was convicted and burned at the stake in the marketplace of Rouen (Joan of Arc, 1)

A Jewish Author in Russia’s Court: The Life of Boris Pasternak and How Russia Influenced Him

Boris Pasternak, a Jewish man who lived in Russia, a country that influenced him greatly, was not only an interesting man but also a literary giant.  Boris Pasternak was certainly unique in that were so many positive facets of his life:  family, education, poetry, novels, Russian culture, morals, religion, etc.  Boris Pasternak not only raised the bar for literature but also for humanity.

In 1890, Boris Pasternak was born in Moscow, Russia, to a Jewish family.  Pasternak’s father Leonid was a professor at the Moscow School of painting and illustrator of Tolstoy’s major works.  Pasternak’s mother, Rose Kaufman, was a famous concert pianist.  In 1922, Pasternak married Art Institute student Evgeniya Lurye.  In 1923, Pasternak had a son named Evengil.  In 1946, Pasternak married his second wife Olga Ivinskaya.  Eventually, Olga served as the prototype for the famous novel Doctor Zhivago.  Pasternak died on the evening of May 30, 1960.

Although he was known for his writings, Pasternak’s first love was botany, and his second was music.  Because of his love for music, Pasternak entered the Moscow Conservatory.  However, in 1910, Pasternak dropped out of the conservatory due to his lack of technical skill.  After the fall of music school, Pasternak studied philosophy at Marburg University in Germany.  In 1913, Pasternak finally gave up his academic career, moved back to Russia, and pursued his literary career (Daives).  

Pasternak began his literary career as a poet.  Pasternak’s first poetic debut was Twin in the Stormclouds.  Pasternak’s first poems easily displayed alliteration, rhyme, rhythm, and use of metaphor.  In the 1920’s Pasternak’s poetry transitioned from lyrical to narrative. In his narrative poems, Pasternak addressed the 1905 Russian Revolution by writing Sublime Malady (1924), Lieutenant Schmidt (1927), and The Year 1905 (1927). Pasternak’s 1932 final poetry collection, Second Birth, was based off his theory that no matter how hard life may become, suicide is never the answer.

In 1917, Pasternak wrote his first two books.  These first two books were My Sister Life and Themes and Variations.  Due to the Bolshevik Revolution and World War I, it would take five years for My Sister Life to be published.  In 1931, Pasternak wrote his first prose Spektorsky. Spektorsky told the story of a young poet who shared the author’s view on the Bolshevik Revolution.  Pasternak’s most famous novel Dr. Zhivago, praised freedom, independence, and Christianity.  In 1519, Pasternak wrote his last book When the Weather Clears (Daives).

The Bolshevik Revolution clearly made it difficult for the life of Boris Pasternak.  First, it delayed the releasing of Pasternak’s first novels My Sister Life and Themes and Variations.  Second, it horrified Pasternak so much that he decided to write Aerial Ways which exemplified his strong dislike for politics.  Finally, after the Bolshevik Revolution ended, Pasternak found it difficult to maintain his family even though small-scale capitalism was taking place (Barnes, 278).

Although Lenin’s Soviet government believed that art should increase political propaganda, Pasternak was a silent role model for those who believed art held eternal truths.  In 1924, Lenin died, and the struggle for political power increased evermore.  In 1928, Stalin succeeded Lenin.  In 1932, Stalin created the doctrine of Socialist Realism (Daives).  Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines a socialist as one who advocates or practices socialism (828).  Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines realism as the preoccupation with fact or reality and rejection of the impractical and visionary (712).  When the words socialist and realism are combined, it means the principle that the arts should glorify Communism (Daives).

Boris Pasternak, an interesting, literary giant, lived in a country that influenced him greatly, Russia.  However,
when all of Pasternak’s accomplishments are combined, Pasternak influenced Russia even more.

The War of 1812

In 1803, war between France and Britain erupted.  They tried to destroy each other by trade (France's army was too strong for Britain to defeat France on land.)  The U.S. was neutral.  Both France and Britain would stoop American ships they thought to be headed for enemy ports.  Some British seamen fled to American ships.  Sometimes they not only took the Brisish soldiers back but also captured Americans Sailors.

In 1807, the Chesapeake Affair nearly brought war.  British warship, Leopard, suspected deserters were aboard the U.S.S. Chesapeake.  They stopped the American ship and demanded the right to search the vessel.  Captain refused British opened fire and killed over 20 men.  The Chesapeake surrendered, and the British took four deserters three of which were Americans. 

The Embargo Act, adopted by Congress, through Jefferson's urging, bannedd all American trad with the rest of the world, keeping American goods from Europe.  This hurt America more than other countries.  Finally, Congress replaced the Embargo Act with the Non-Intercourse Act which resotred international trade but not with France or Britain.  This was replaced with Macon's Bill Number Two which abolished the non-intercourse policy and restored all trade.

On June 1, 1812, Madison gave five reason for going to war with Britian:  impressment of American sailors, violations of American territorial waters, plunderings of American goods, refusal to revoke trade restrictions, and incitement of the Indians to violence.  Some favored the war while others were against the war.

The entire Northwest opened up to the British and Indians.  Geral Hull was to attack Canada from Detroit.  General Rensselaer was to attack from New York.  Isaac Brock caused the plan to fail by surrounding Hull and scared him into surrendering his force without he even a fight.  He, then, attacked Rensselaer's force.  Brock was killed, and the Americans were driven back to New York.

America only had 16 warships, and they were going up against the largest navy in the world.  However, America had victories at sea.  The U.S.S Constitution was nicknamed "Old Ironsides".  When the British fired at it, the cannonballs would bounce off the sides.  Although victories soon stopped, the early wins encouraged the Americans.

Willilam Henry Harrison was given command of operations in the Northwest.  Harrison realized Lake Erie was the point needed to secure the territory.  With that area secured, Harrison moved against the British army.  On October 5, 1813, Harrison routed the British-Indian force, and Tecumseh, Indian chief and leader, was killed in The Battle of the Thames.

Britain had a three way plan to win the War.  First, an army would separate New York and New England from the rest of the states.  Second a force would attack and raid any major cities on the east coast.  Finally another force would attack and capture New Orleans.  

The results of the war was that both states just wanted to stop fighting.  Conditions went back to what they were in 1812.  However, America did profit from the war.  The Northwest was open for settlement; America could settle back in a form of isolation.  After all of this, America had  a gigantic sense of national pride and honor.

The Age of Andrew Jackson (1820-1840)

                                                                                      
The age of Jacksonian democracy was known as that age of the common man.  Even before Jackson took office, there were originations of nationalism, sectionalism, and democratization that were shaping the nation.

After the War of 1812, there was a spirit of nationalism spreading throughout the country. By 1821, Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, and Missouri joined.

Due to concern for the economic strength of the nation, Henry Clay proposed the American system.   The first part of this system was the protective tariff.  Since America served as a source of raw materials for Europe and as a market for finished goods, the protective tariff was designed to shield from potentially fatal foreign competition.  The second part of the system was the Second National Bank.  Financial problems created by inflation were only made larger by the war.  In 1816, the Second Bank had a twenty year charter.  The last part of the system was internal improvements.  This consisted of funding for roads, canals, harbor developments, etc.  This was the least successful aspect of the American system.

When good times went bad, the U.S. and W. were driven further apart.  In 1819, across seas, there were two main events that caused panic.  The first event was the Cotton Collapse.  Not only did cotton fall, but it brought other goods down with it.  The second event was the irresponsible action of state banks and the National bank.  Banks, paper money, and loans all multiplied in a race for riches.

In 1818, Missouri applies for statehood; they are a slave state.  There were already two free states and 11 slave states.  This would clearly cause an imbalance in Congress.  In 1820, there was the Missouri Compromise.  It was a compromise that stated three things:  Maine be admitted as a free state, Missouri be admitted as a slave state, and slavery would not be permitted north of the Missouri border.

When the openness of the political process grew, the average citizen had more voice in his government.  Political expansions were seen in three areas:  voting rights were given to all adult whit males, people had more voice in presidential elections, the rise of a two party system.

In the 1828 Election, Jackson destroys Adams by a landslide!

Born in Carolina backcountry in 1767.  His parents were Irish-Presbyterian, and he was named after his father.  At 13, he joined with the Patriots against the British, and he served as a messenger.  In 1781, he and his brother were captured; he refused to polish a soldier's shoes and was beaten for it.  After the war, he studied law.  Landed a job as public prosecutor in Tennessee.  Later on, he became a state judge and was admitted to Congress in 1796.

Jackson's cabinet was given their position as a reward for the political campaign, but they had little influence with the president.  His real advisors were a close group of friends who critics called his "Kitchen Cabinet".

In 1828, Congress passed a new higher protective tariff called the "Tariff of Abominations."  The North and South saw differently on the idea of Tariffs.  The north favored high protection tariffs while the south depended on foreign imports.

Jackson's problem for reelection in 1832 was the future of the Bank.  There were three political precedents of the 1832 election:  a third party, First Party platform, and the first national nomination convention.

In 1833, Jackson appoints Taney as Secretary of Treasury.  Taney moved deposits to state banks.  The loss of federal deposits forced the Bank to tighten credit-hurt business expansion.  To attempt to slow the spiraling inflation, the Specie Circular of 1836 was created.  This prohibited the use of anything except gold or silver coins for purchase of land.

The U.S. wanted to move all tribes in the east to land west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rockies.  The tribes were not happy when Jackson came into office and made 94 treaties some of which were executed by force.

                                                                                      
There was obvious resistance.  The Black Hawk War was a war in which Indians tried to reclaim their land they lost.  The Seminole War, 1835-1842, was where the Indians hid in swamp lands and marshes, resisted with armed forces, and many relocated but some stayed.  The Cherokee built roads, schools, an alphabet, etc.  They took their battle to court.  The decision was in favor of the Cherokee, but the government ignored it.  They were moved west by force, and their journey became known as the "Trail of Tears."

Between 1828 and 1840, two parties, Democrat and Whig, competed for the presidency and control of Congress.  Martin Van Buren won and would be the last representative to be elected president until 1989.

In the Panic of 1837, the economy collapse, banks and businesses failed, and unemployment grew.  This was caused by many events:  Jackson's economic policies, irresponsibility of state banks, wheat crop failure, and the collapse of cotton prices.

Harrison would become the next president who died a month after taking the office.  He was the oldest president elected who would be taken over by one of the youngest presidents, Tyler.

The Writing Process

1.  Choose your topic.  There are several ways to choose a topic:  listing, questioning, brainstorming, freewriting, interviewing, etc.

2.  Narrow the topic

3.  Consider your audience, the person(s) who will be reading your work.

4.  Determine your purpose
       a.  To analyze-break apart
       b.  To describe
       c.  To entertain
       d.  To inform
       e.  To persuade-change someone's mind

5.  Gather information

6.  Outline the paper
  a.  An outline is simply an organizational plan for your writing.
  b.  A Tentative outline is one in which the writer does not use numerals or letters and is unconcerned about parallelism of points or making sure that the points are fully developed.
  c.  A topic outline uses only words or phrases-no complete sentences and no verbs except verbals.
  d.  A sentence outline is a complete sentence for every point.

7.  Drafting
  -The first draft should never be thought of as a finished work.  It is rather a work in progress, a preliminary version
  -Try writing through an entire point in your outline at one sitting.

8.  Writing Exposition
  a.  Expository writing is writing that systematically explains, analyzes, or informs about a subject.
  b.  Narrative or creative writing is writing that is characterized by expressiveness, imagination, and originality.
  c.  Mode is the term given to the form or method of writing that you choose.
    1.  Descriptive-describes an object, person, or place
    2.  Expository-Informs about a topic; explains or analyzes a process; defines or classifies a topic
    3.  Narrative-Relates a story or an event
    4.  Persuasive-Persuades readers to take action or to change their position on a topic.
    5.  Academic-Focuses on demonstrating a specific academic skill
    6.  Personal-Tells an individual's own thoughts or feelings

9.  Thesis Statements.  In the planning stage you asked yourself WHAT IS MY PURPOSE?  Your answer to that question will become the basis of the thrust of your writing.  That thrust, or main idea, is called the THESIS STATEMENT.  The thesis statement is usually expressed in a single declarative sentence.  The thesis statement should be verifiable.

10.  Introductions should capture the reader's attention
    a.  Analogy
    b.  Anecdote
    c.  Fact or statistic
    d.  Question
    e.  Quotation

11.  Paragraph Development
    a.  Most writing is composed of a series of paragraphs, groups of sentences closely related to one another and to the main idea of the piece.
    b.  A topic sentence expresses the main idea of a paragraph in a single sentence.

12.  Supporting Sentences
    -Supporting sentences develop, or support, the topic sentence.
    -Facts and statistics, details, and anecdotes---these are some of the ways writers support topic sentences and build paragraphs.